Another document I made for A level revision including book summaries, themes, characterisation, methods, and modern scholarship. I made this with the OCR specification in mind, but I hope it will come in useful for anyone studying or simply interested in the Aeneid. Enjoy!
Book Summaries
Book 1 – The Trojans are just off the coast of Sicily. Juno is determined they cannot reach Italy so gets Aeolus to send a storm to blow them off course. During the storm Aeneas wishes he had died at Troy. Poseidon is annoyed at Aeolus’ interference and calms the storm. They arrive in Carthage. Aeneas is sad but provides for and motivates his men. Venus complains to Jupiter about her son’s suffering, but he reassures he will reach Italy and found a great city. Carthage very productive, ekphrasis of temple. Venus sends Cupid to make Dido fall in love with Aeneas.
Book 2 – Aeneas tells the story of the fall of Troy – Sinon tricked Trojans into taking in the wooden horse and the Greeks entered and killed king Priam. Hector appeared to Aeneas in a dream, telling him to leave. Aeneas escapes with father Anchises after flame portent but his wife Creusa is sadly lost.
Book 3 – Recalls the seven years of wandering. In Thrace they hold a funeral for Polydorus. At Delos, Apollo tells Aeneas to go to the land of his ancestors – Anchises misinterprets this as Crete but once there a plague strikes out and the Penates come in a dream, telling him it is Italy. Harpy Celaeno’s prophecy about being driven to eat their tables. Anchises dies whilst in Sicily but Aeneas is too sad to talk much about that.
Book 4 – The story resumes. Dido gives into her love for Aeneas but he gets a message from Jupiter via Mercury that he must leave to fulfil his mission. He leaves and Dido, despaired, kills herself.
Book 5 – Trojans return to Sicily and celebrate funeral games for Anchises. Inspired by Juno, the women set fire to the ships, but Aeneas prays for help and Jupiter puts the fire out. Aeneas agrees for some of his people to stay in Sicily. They set off for Italy and Palinurus is lost overboard, Neptune’s price.
Book 6 – Aeneas visits the Sibyl at Cumae to allow him into the underworld. He sees Dido before meeting his father, who shows him the Roman heroes who are waiting to be born, inspiring Aeneas to fulfil his mission.
Book 7 – Trojans arrive at mouth of the Tiber and ‘eat their tables’. Latinus welcomes them and agrees for Lavinia to marry Aeneas. Juno sends fury Allecto to throw snake at Amata, leading her to object vehemently to the marriage, and to throw a torch at Turnus, leading him to be consumed by anger. War breaks out when Ascanius shoots a pet stag.
Book 8 – Aeneas leaves Trojan camp to seek help from nearby Evander. When he arrives, Evander and Pallas are celebrating Hercules’ destruction of monster Cacus. Evander shows Aeneas the city and sends Pallas to fight with Trojans. Aeneas receives divine armour from Venus, made by Vulcan, including ekphrasis of shield.
Book 9 – Aeneas is away and Turnus attacks the Trojan camp. Nisus and Euryalus set out at night to send a message to him but both are killed.
Book 10 – Aeneas returns with Pallas. Pallas is good warrior but is inexperienced and killed by Turnus, who takes his baldric. Aeneas has furor and kills many in merciless revenge, including Lausus and Mezentius.
Book 11 – Both sides bury their dead. Pallas’ body is taken back to Evander. Implied Aeneas engages in human sacrifice. Drances proposes Turnus should face Aeneas alone but battle continues. Camilla joins in the fighting and is killed.
Book 12 – a truce is agreed so that a duel can take place, but Juturna breaks it and fierce fighting follows. Latinus’ city is attacked, Amata commits suicide, and Turnus prepares to meet Aeneas alone. Juno and Jupiter reach a deal – she will let Trojans win, but they must adopt all Latin customs. Aeneas wounds Turnus, who begs for mercy. Aeneas is moved but spots Pallas’ baldric and kills him.
Composition
Virgil began work on the Aeneid in about 29BC; he was already well known thanks to his Eclogues and Georgics. His patron was Maecenas, a close adviser of Augustus. Virgil would have been aware of the expectation of his work under these two figures.
Propertius remarked during the composition of the Aeneid: ‘Give way, Greeks! Something more than the Iliad is being born’.
Upon his death, Virgil wanted the work to be destroyed.
Structure and techniques
First half of the Aeneid is generally considered an Odyssey, the second half an Iliad.
Narrator interventions
· To the Muses – Virgil begins is epic in Homeric style, calling upon the Muses to help tell his story
· To the gods – direct addresses to the gods lift the narrative from the human to the divine plain. E.g ‘Was it your will, o Jupiter, that peoples who were to live at peace for all time, should clash so violently in war?’ Book 12.
· To himself or the reader – In Book 9 Virgil draws attention to his role as poet ‘Fortune has favoured you both! If there is any power in my poetry, the day will never come when time will erase you from the memory of man...’. Also shares irony with the reader e.g Book 10 ‘he will bitterly regret this spoil and the day he took it’.
· To characters – Virgil often directly addresses those that are dying e.g Larides and Thymber, Book 10. This heightens the emotion of the scene.
Flashback
Books 2 and 3 are flashback. At Dido’s request, Aeneas tells the story of the fall of Troy and of his advenures before arriving in Carthage. This closely mirrors Odysseus’ tale to the Phaeacians in Books 9-12 of the Odyssey. This first-person account:
· Increases the tragedy as the story is overlaid with the narrator’s benefit of hindsight ‘if the minds of the gods had not been set against us... Troy would still be standing’.
· Gives precise perspective – we share Aeneas’ view of events and his emotion upon retelling them e.g of Pyrrhus breaking down the palace door.
· Is Aeneas’ story to Dido. Do we doubt its authenticity? Could he be trying to impress her?
In terms of being a narrative device, the flashback gives Dido time to admire Aeneas’ courage and submit to the effects of Cupid’s love spell.
Speeches
There are fewer speeches than in Homer; Virgil seems to prefer to tell more of the story himself and reveal his characters through third-person narration – perhaps this is why Aeneas is often criticised as two-dimensional and harder to relate to when compared with characters who speak a lot for themselves like Odysseus.
Prophecies are pronounced through speeches e.g Book 6 when Anchises shows Odysseus the future Romans.
Immortals deliver speeches to mortals e.g Book 4 when Mercury delivers Jupiter’s message to Aeneas, Book 2 when Venus stops Aeneas killing Helen.
There are some more menial speeches in general discussion and conversation, such as Book 7 when Ascanius announces they are eating their tables, or Book when Juno and Venus plot the marriage.
There are also more formal speeches – Diomede replying to the Latins in Book 11, Drances vs Turnus in Book 11.
Rousing battle speech is included – Tarchon motivates the Etruscans in Book 11, as does Pallas in Book 10.
Similes
Similes in the Aeneid are often long, extended similes. E.g Book 2 when Aeneas describes Troy as ‘settling into flames like an ancient ash tree high in the mountains which farmers have hacked with blow upon blow of their double axes, labouring to fell it; again and again it threatens to fall, its foliage shudders and its head trembles and nods until at last it succumbs to its wounds and breaks with a dying groan, spreading ruin along the ridge.
· Book 4 – Aeneas is compared to a ‘solid oak’ as he is unwilling to compromise or understand Dido’s view of events
· Book 4 – the Trojans are compared to ‘plundering ants’ as they prepare to leave Carthage
· Book 7 – Amata is compared to a ‘spinning-top’ as she succumbs to Allecto’s provocation
· Book 9 – Euryalus is compared to a ‘bright flower scythed by the plough’
· Book 10 – Pallas is compared to a ‘flower plucked by a young girl’s fingers’ after being killed by Turnus
· Book 11 – Camilla and her women are compared to the Amazons
· Book 12 – Turnus is ‘like a suppliant’ and ‘like a boy’
· Book 12 – the futility of Turnus trying to lift the boulder is ‘just as when we are asleep... trying desperately to run further and not succeeding’
Ekphrasis
When the poem is interrupted by a description of a work of art, object, or story.
The two most notable examples are in Book 1 and Book 8:
· In Book 1, upon arriving in Carthage, Aeneas comes across a sculpture on the temple of Juno which tells stories of the Trojan war. (450-493)
· In Book 8, Aeneas receives his divine armour from Venus and Vulcan. His shield features many notable and mythological events in Rome’s future and in its centre is Augustus at Actium. It is clearly inspired by Achilles’ shield in the Iliad.
Catalogue
Catalogues (long lists) are a traditional feature of epic. Virgil includes a catalogue in Book 7, listing Latinus’ allies, and in Book 10, listing those of Aeneas.
Virgil’s catalogues are more than a list: they provide pictures of individuals, some in more detail than others, and some of which are the distant ancestors of his contemporary prominent Romans. This adds an element of variety and excitement (contrast this with Iliad Book 2...) and also inspires patriotism and unity under Augustus.
Camilla is briefly mentioned at the end of the catalogue in Book 7, providing a contrast to the stereotypical warriors preceding her. This also serves as an introduction to her appearance in Book 11.
Homeric influence
The Aeneid looks back to a Trojan past but also forward to a Roman future, uniting grand Homeric ideas and tales with Rome, thus elevating his city’s status. Aeneas was featured in the Iliad, conforms to the qualities of a typical Homeric hero (but also has his own unique qualities) and the epic focuses on very similar subject matter to the Iliad and the Odyssey. Virgil also uses the literary devices of Homer; epic similes, dactylic hexameter etc.
· Virgil uses epithets, signature of Homer – e.g ‘pious Aeneas’, but his give the poem a stronger moral undertone in contrast to Homer’s typically more literal epithets like ‘resourceful Odysseus’
· Homer only had the oral tradition of epics and myths to draw upon, whereas Virgil had the benefit of hundreds of years of literature and the effect of this is evident – Callimachus, Plato, etc.
· There seems to be more psychological depth to Virgil’s plot and characters, as well as pauses in action where Virgil shares what is going on in their minds.
· The largest difference is perhaps the purpose of each poet. Homer told stories of a timeless heroic world, presumably just for the purpose of entertainment at the text’s most basic level. Virgil moves from the fantasy to the real world, e.g Book 6 parade of future Romans. Virgil, under the patronage of Maecenas and Augustus, also would likely have been aware of the political undertones his poetry had to carry. As far as we know, Homer did not have this issue.
Themes - Heroism
Turnus exhibits many of the qualities of a Homeric hero and is presented as the ‘second Achilles’ that the Sibyl predicted in Book 6. He:
· Is in a position of leadership
· Is bold and brave on the battlefield
· Has divine protection (Juturna and Juno, armour made by Vulcan too)
· Is proud and is afraid of shame (feels humilated when Juno leads him away from battle)
· Is likened in similes to fierce animals e.g mountain lion
By portraying Turnus as heroic Virgil can make the Trojan victory seem more impressive but also add an element of morality. Does Turnus deserve to die? Are we supposed to admire Turnus?
Aeneas can easily be seen as a Homeric hero – he is of noble birth, has close relationships with the gods, physically impressive, a ferocious fighter, and an effective leader (for the most part).
But Aeneas already has kleos and fame when the epic begins – Virgil's audience likely remembered his role in the Iliad and in Book 1 sees himself on the temple sculpture in Carthage. He no longer needs or wants to pursue kleos. Whilst Odysseus introduces himself with ‘the whole world talks of my stratagems’, Aeneas tells Venus disguised as a Spartan huntress that he is ‘known for his devotion’. He defines himself in terms of obligation to the gods, family, and his people.
Pietas is the central difference between the Homeric and Roman hero. Aeneas is not fighting for his own glory, but for his people and for the will of the gods.
Themes - Cities
Exile and the founding of cities is a prominent theme of the Aeneid, and future Rome itself is referred to explicitly.
· In Book 1, Aeneas tells his men that ‘Troy shall rise again’
· In Book 3, Anchises and Aeneas first try to build a city on Crete, but a terrible plague strikes and the Penates clarify that the oracle of Apollo at Delos was referring to Italy.
· Aeneas says to Dido in Book 4 he would rather go home and rebuild Troy than found a new city...
· Aeneas’ visit to Pallenteum (Evander’s city) in Book 8 embodies this theme – Pallenteum is the site of future Rome, providing familiar cultural references to the city e.g the Captiol
Themes - War and Peace
Virgil had witnessed Italy torn apart by civil war and this is reflected by images of the peaceful natural world being destroyed by storms and torrents. When the Latins are rushing to fight, ‘trees shivered at the noise’. In doing this he questions the Homeric ideal of unthinking pursuit of war for personal glory.
War is shown to bring suffering:
· In Book 9, Euryalus’ mother is seen wailing after the death of her son who was on a mission to send a message to Aeneas. But he also wrongly and foolishly took too many spoils.
· Pallas’ death in Book 10 is particularly poignant as he seems to be a symbol of youthful talent and is generally a likeable character. Evander’s reaction is very sad.
· Even Mezentius suffers due to the death of his son Lausus in Book 10. Even though Mezentius seemed previously unlikable, we sympathise with him in this passage as Virgil draws attention to his graying hair and loyal horse.
· Amata sees the Latin camp being attacked and kills herself. This is partly due to Juno/Allecto’s intervention but can also be seen as commentary on war.
· The catalogue of deaths at the hands of Aeneas, Turnus, and Pallas show this though in a less emotional way.
Themes - Pietas (important!)
Devotion and duty to one’s family (especially the father), the gods, and one’s own country.
The epithet of pius is used of Aeneas throughout the Aeneid. He often makes sacrifices and shows respect to the gods and in Book 1 announces himself as ‘Aeneas, known for my devotion’.
In Book 2 Aeneas cannot leave Troy as his father Anchises refuses to – to abandon his father would not be the action of a pious son. After the flame portent on Ascanius’ head, persuading Anchises to leave, the image of the family leaving Troy shows Aeneas personifying piety with Ascanius holding his hand, and his father on his shoulders bearing the Penates.
In Book 4, Aeneas is told by Mercury (at the will of Jupiter) to leave Carthage and fulfil his mission. He follows their commands at the expense of Dido, who he heartlessly abandons. Are we supposed to admire Aeneas for putting his religious piety above human feelings?
More examples of Aeneas’ piety:
· In Book 7, he sacrifices the sow to Juno upon arriving in Italy.
· In Book 10, he reacts with sorrow to the death of Lausus.
· In Book 11, Diomede says that Aeneas is an equal fighter but more pious than Hector.
· In Book 12, he has a heartwarming farewell to Ascanius as he returns to battle.
· In Book 12, his killing of Turnus could be interpreted as an act of piety, as it is avenging Pallas’ death for Evander.
Possible instances of lacking piety:
· In Book 2, he leaves Creusa behind – perhaps not all his fault, but it could reflect on him badly. She was part of his family unit and the mother of his child.
· In Book 11, it is possible that he engages in human sacrifice for Pallas’ funeral. This was considered a terrible act in contemporary Rome. Some ancient sources, such as Appian, claim Augustus took part in this during the Perusian war.
· He seems reluctant at times to fulfil his mission – he has to be spurred on by Mercury, spends too long waiting and looking around in the underworld, he says to Dido he would rather go back to Troy and rebuild the city.
· He is merciless to those he kills in his furor such as Magus, who mentions his family and tries to remind Aeneas of his own. Equally with Turnus. Also slaughters a priest of Apollo.
Themes - Furor
Irrational, uncontrolled behaviour
In Book 1, Virgil uses a simile which features a clash of pietas and furor – an important theme in the Aeneid. As Neptune calms the storm, it is likened to the way a good man can calm an angry crowd. This simile is unusual as nature is being likened to a human behaviour rather than the usual being the other way around. E.g Aeneas compared with a solid oak in Book 4. This simile implies that pietas can overcome furor.
Furor is used frequently in Book 4 to describe Dido – her passionate love and the madness that drives her to suicide. Furor is also used to describe Amata after her visit from Allecto, of Pygmalion and his killing of Sychaeus for treasure, and the frenzy of the Sibyl.
Furor is what drives Homeric heroes to kill - it drives Achilles to avenge Patrocolus. It drives Turnus and Aeneas too. Like Iliadic heroes, Turnus rushes into battle for personal glory – but is important to note he is a victim as his furor comes through Allecto throwing a burning torch at him. There are many images of him in battle as a wild animal, raging torrent, etc.
Aeneas is also subject to furor. Seeing the Greeks overcome Troy, he says ‘frenzy and anger drove me on’. He is also overcome with furor when he sees Helen and is overcome with an urge to kill her before Venus stops him. He gives way to furor after the death of Pallas, burning with rage and ‘flushed with slaughter’. His cruelty defies all the decent behaviour that is expected of Romans. He saves four brothers for human sacrifice, kills Magus who is begging for mercy, and slaughters a priest of Apollo.
Book 12 sees Aeneas again in the grip of furor. When the truce is broken, Aeneas ‘gave full rein to his anger’, where Virgil’s use of the verb ‘gave’ implies that this was a conscious decision. His anger momentarily subsides when Turnus begs for his life, asking him to take pity on his father. There is nothing in fate that says Turnus has to die – he has already relinquished Lavinia. But Aeneas catches sight of Pallas’ baldric and kills Turnus.
Aeneas’ killing of Turnus is not clear-cut. It could be read as an act of justice – Evander begged for Aeneas to avenge Pallas. Anchises said that Rome’s mission was to ‘cast down the proud’, and Turnus has been proud. But Anchises also says to show mercy to the conquered. Perhaps Virgil is pointing out that no leader can gain and maintain power without compromising his ideals.
Themes - Fate and Destiny
The gods accept that Jupiter’s will always prevails (see below for Jupiter’s role in Fate). Venus calls Jupiter ‘you who rule the affairs of gods and men with your eternal law’. Dido dies ‘before the decree of Fate’ so Iris has to make a special journey to release her from her body.
Aeneas pursues his mission because he knows it is fated, although sometimes appears reluctant. Turnus and Latinus go against Fate, with tragic consequences.
Themes - the Gods
The gods in the Aeneid are anthropomorphic as they were in Homer. This was tradition and probably doesn’t mean that Virgil believed literally in gods who lived on a mountain and regularly intervened in human affairs. The gods primarily serve as narrative devices that add fantasy and excitement to the plot.
· Jupiter – embodies the notion of Fate and is supposedly responsible for its execution. But he often seems to get distracted – allowing attempts to divert or postpone the inevitable, particularly those from Juno. When she wants to save Turnus, Jupiter says ‘If what you ask is a stay of the death that is upon him... for a man that must die, and if you accept that that is what I ordain, then rescue Turnus. When Jupiter feels it is necessary to establish his position, he decrees: ‘let each man face his own fortune and se his course by his own hopes... the Fates will find their way’. This flexibility is important as without it the characters would be like puppets and the plot would be very predictable.
· Juno – is the driving force behind Aeneas’ troubles in the Aeneid. Begins Book 1 with a storm that drives them to Carthage and ignites the war in Book 7. In Book 12, however, she is reconciled. She may be frustrating at times for audiences who are routing for Aeneas’ victory, but without her role in the plot the Aeneid would be much less exciting. Argues with Venus about who is responsible for Aeneas’ trouble. Removes Turnus from battle by luring him away with phantom Aeneas.
· Venus – protects Aeneas in Carthage and Troy, stops him from killing Helen, sends doves to help him find the golden bough, brings him a shield, sends healing balm to cure his wound so that he can continue fighting. She is almost to Aeneas what Athene is to Odysseus. Her presence reminds us that Augustus, through Iulus, can trace his ancestry to the gods.
· Mercury – is sent by Jupiter to spur Aeneas on in Book 4.
· Apollo – intervenes only once, when he prevents Ascanius from continuing to fight in Book 9. His mention and presence can be linked to Augustus, as his patron god.
· Vulcan – does not appear directly in the action, but his Cyclopes make Aeneas’ shield.
Themes - Family
The father/son relationships reflect the continuity of the Roman race – Aeneas' father and son allow him to look backwards and forwards in time. However, we have very little evidence for how Aeneas relates to his family. Virgil seems more concerned with the family bond between generations and the respect owed to elders.
Family relationships give maximum potential for pathos in highlighting the cruelty of war.
Families can span the human and the divine – the immortals have family relationships which adds another layer of complexity to the story, and the Aeneas-Venus relationship highlights the huge burden that Aeneas carries of being a hero.
Augustus himself was keen to promote the family as part of his reforms (Leges Juliae etc.) and saw himself as pater patriae (‘father of his country’) as well as promoting the worship of the genius of his family.
· Aeneas and Anchises - Aeneas looks up to Anchises; he will not abandon him in Troy, and even after his death he seems to rely on him as seen in his journey to the Underworld for emotional motivation. He is too sad to recall his death in detail in Book 3. The wisdom of the father is precious and very relevant in a poem in which a return to traditional values and the mos maiorum (ways of our ancestors) is a key theme.
· Aeneas and Ascanius - The relationship between Aeneas and Ascanius is best shown in Book 12 as he kisses his son whilst wearing his helmet, instilling in him the importance of following the good examples of his elders.
· Aeneas and Venus – Aeneas has no real relationship with his mother and is frustrated in Book 1 as he complains she only ever appears in disguise and he can never truly communicate with her or have a normal mother/son relationship.
Themes - Friendship
The friendship (or, arguably, romantic relationship) between Nisus and Euryalus shown in Book 9 heightens the tragedy of their deaths. Possible parallel to Achilles and Patroclus. Xenia (guest-friendship) is relevant in three episodes:
· Dido and Aeneas, Book 1 – When Aeneas and his men arrive in Carthage, they approach Dido as suppliants. She is quick to offer them protection and hospitality.
· Latinus and Aeneas, Book 7 – Ironically, Latinus greets the Trojans with words of friendship: ‘Do not refuse the guest-friendship we offer you’, making their war seem all the more tragic.
· Evander and Aeneas, Book 8 – Aeneas has no worry about approaching the Greek Evander, because the bonds that link them through friendship are much stronger than the enmity engendered by past wars, as Evander was friends with Anchises.
Themes - Romantic Relationships
The husband and wife relationships in the Aeneid are at points of crisis and are rarely shown in a positive light - this must be noted. Romantic relationships are rarely portrayed in an idyllic light.
· Aeneas and Creusa – Creusa prevails upon Aeneas to protect their family as they flee Troy. Aeneas seems much less concerned about her than the rest of his family - ‘Iulus can walk by my side and my wife can follow in my footsteps at a distance’, not even mentioning her by name. Aeneas loses her and there seems to be no place for her on his mission. Ends in tragedy as she is lost.
· Latinus and Amata – Amata seems to have a strong say in the question of her daughter’s marriage – perhaps reflecting the strong women behind power in Roman politics e.g Livia. Amata’s role is to cause Latinus to retreat and allow the war to happen. Ends in tragedy as she commits suicide.
· Aeneas and Dido – Virgil's account of their relationship seems very one-sided, therefore it is difficult to discuss their relationship as lovers. We know her feelings in detail but have no insight into Aeneas’ until he defends his decision to leave. She becomes an irrational and destructive force defined by her furor. Their roles are reversed in the underworld where she is grim-faced and does not speak, whereas Aeneas gazes at her ‘in tears’. Dido seems to flourish when she is not in a relationship with a man and she seemed to recognise this at first when she vowed she would not re-enter a relationships due to her loyalty to Sychaeus. As a single woman, Dido leads the escape from Tyre, negotiates land, builds a city and runs it efficiently. Ends in tragedy as she commits suicide.
· Lavinia and Turnus – whilst we get little insight into their relationship, perhaps Virgil’s lack of elaboration speaks for itself. Their engagement seems loveless and more down to convenience and expectation than love. Lavinia never speaks a word in the poem and does not seem to have a say in who she marries. It seems that Turnus acts more out of stubbornness that love for Lavinia. Ends in tragedy, Turnus killed.
Themes - Women
The most memorable women of the Aeneid are Dido, Camilla and Amata. They are presented vividly and act daringly, imposing their own wills on the man’s world of a hero. Without them, the Aeneid would lose much of its emotional intensity and dramatic action.
It is the two immortal females, Juno and Venus, who feature most heavily of all the gods in the Aeneid, perhaps bar Jupiter.
Despite these outstanding independent and feisty creations, women in the Aeneid are defined in relation to men – they are wives, widows, mothers, daughters, sisters, or victims of war. We have a limited view of them in the Aeneid.
Women are often seen as victims of war. In Book 1, we see the Trojan women on the temple frieze in Carthage going in supplication to the temple of Athene, hair unbound and beating their breasts in grief. In Book 9, Euryalus’ mother laments how she cannot wash her son’s wounds or bury his body and is shown in a stage of intense grief. Trojan women lament Pallas’ death, the women of Latinus’ city wail and beat their breasts.
Lavinia is destined to marry Aeneas and is major reason why the war begun – yet blushing is as far as she gets to expressing herself in the Aeneid. By showing her silence, Virgil is reflecting the normality of arranged marriages in the Roman world and that women were seen as objects to be fought over. A modern audience likely finds her silence more troubling than Virgil’s contemporaries.
Women are often shown to be emotionally unstable in the Aeneid. Allecto, the personification of destructive jealousy, is female. Dido and Amata are obvious examples, both driven to suicide by their untethered emotions. Even fierce warrior-maiden Camilla is brought down by a weakness for a nice embroidered tunic.
Promotion of the empire and Augustus’ regime
The extent to which the Aeneid is a work to promote Augustus is still a matter of discussion. There are:
· Passages which are unequivocal praise of Augustus, where he is mentioned by name and his achievements are referred to e.g The Shield in Book 8, Actium
· Passages which are in line with Augustus’ policies e.g respect for traditional ways or the importance of the family unit
· Some people that think Aeneas is a ‘proto-Augustus’
Notable instances of possible Augustan praise:
· Book 1 – Augustus is mentioned by name in Jupiter’s speech. He describes Rome as the ‘rulers of the world’ and ‘an empire that will know no end’.
· Book 6 – the parade of Roman heroes show Aeneas how great Rome will be, and implies Augustus is the culmination of Rome’s greatness. Also reference to Augustus ‘bringing back the golden years’, a reference to his pronunciation of a new golden age of Augustan peace. Great prominence given to Marcellus.
· Book 8 – set on the site of future Rome, igniting patriotism. The simple and modest lifestyle of Evander reflects the simplicity of Augustus’ home on the Palatine. THE SHIELD shows Augustus/Octavian alongisde prominent Roman heroes (such as Romulus, Horatius Cocles, Cato) with his victory at Actium depicted in the centre.
Notable instances of possible Augustan criticism:
· Book 6 – Virgil mentions problematic ‘heroes’ that Augustus avoided mentioning by name in other commissioned works such as Horace. E.g Brutus, Pompey, Caesar. This could be an reminder of his involvement in civil war and the problematic past of Caesar.
· Aeneas as a ‘proto-Augustus’ - if we view Aeneas in this way, there are many problems with this as Aeneas is not depicted as perfect. He might enagage in human sacrifice, in many instances he does not embody the value or clementia, and is often criticised as a one-dimensional and unrelatable character.
· Portrayal of war – Virgil bases half of the Aeneid on civil war, a topic that Augustus understandably tried to distance himself from. Not only this, but the beginnings of war are seen as petty and frivolous – shooting a pet stag, childish divine grudges, a bride destined to marry a foreigner.
Aeneas
The leader
· Trojans rally to him after the fall of Troy (Book 2)
· When shipwrecked in Book 1, he provides for and motivates his men despite his own sadness
· In Book 6 at the burial Misenus he took the lead
The lover
· Whilst it seems to be fated, his strange loss of Creusa in Book 2 might reflect on him negatively
· He has a weak comeback to Dido when she confronts his deception in Book 4 and claims he never even married her
The family man
· In Book 12 there is a heartfelt scene between Aeneas and Ascanius as Aeneas leaves for battle, clearly modelled on a similar scene in the Iliad.
· He is exasperated at the impossibility of having a normal relationship with his mother Venus in Book 1.
· In Book 2 he carries his father out of Troy and is too upset to speak about his death in Sicily. The funeral games in Book 5 are in his father’s honour.
His role in Rome’s imperial destiny
· The proem tells us that Aeneas is being driven on by fate to reach Italy, and that his arrival will mark ‘the beginning of the Latin race, the Alban fathers and the high walls of Rome’
· Jupiter reaffirms this in his speech to Venus, explaining the line of descent to Romulus and the city of Rome. The Romans will be ‘rulers of the world’.
· The key to success on his journey to founding his city is his piety. Aeneas frequently sacrifices to gods and local deities (e.g Book 8 when he sacrifices the sow to Juno), watches out for signs (doves sent by Venus in Book 6) and obeys the will of the gods (leaves Carthage after Mercury’s words in Book 4)
· Anchises showing Aeneas the future Romans in Book 6 is prominent. Augustus and his empire seem to be the culmination of this imperial destiny.
· An explicit link between Aeneas and the contemporary Roman empire can be seen in the shield given to him in Book 8. Imagine if the Aeneid was a film – every moment as he is shown on the battlefield the audience sees Augustus in the centre of his shield. Is this problematic, given Aeneas’ furor and merciless killing, or does it glorify Augustus?
But Aeneas often falters in his approaches – often seen ‘turning many things over in his mind’. He stands gazing too long in the underworld in Book 6 and the Sibyl has to remind him of their limited time. He often waits to be prompted by a visit from the gods or other figures in his dreams. Are we irritated by his lack of assertion or do we admire his thoughtfulness?
Turnus
While Aeneas is in the underworld, the Sibyl tells him that he will have to face a second Achilles, preparing us for Turnus. He is a man of standing; a hero who presents a worthy challenge to Aeneas.
In many respects, Turnus is not unlike Aeneas. They both have divine help, both skilled fighters, both men of integrity. Turnus wishes to marry the girl he loves (and has been promised) and protect his kingdom from foreign invaders – all valid objectives! He is unfortunate to be involved in a situation beyond his control: his rival is part of a divine plan which will come about regardless, and his own behaviour is manipulated by Juno and Juturna.
In many ways Turnus can be seen as a Homeric hero: he is a leader, has divine protection, impressive in war, proud, young, fierce, etc.
Turnus also exhibits furor. But he is a victim – his furor comes from Allecto throwing a ‘burning torch’ at him so that ‘in a frenzy of rage he called for his armour’. Throughout the fighting, there are images of him as a wild animal, raging torrent and uncontrollable fire. He behaves mad and irrationally, opposite to how the ideal Roman should conduct himself – but Aeneas has furor too that was not caused by Allecto. Is Turnus’ furor therefore not as bad as Aeneas’?
Ascanius
· In Book 2, Ascanius’ hair catches fire, a message from Jupiter that they should leave Troy. On their departure Ascanius is portrayed as a son that Aeneas needs to protect. The description of them holding hands is touching.
· In Book 4, he is too young to ride in the hunt. Childlike, he envies the adults and wishes he could see an exciting animal like a lion. This makes him seem a realistic child – perhaps a useful counterargument to critiques of Virgil’s characterisation.
· In Book 7, he is used by Juno as a vehicle to ignite war between the Latins and Trojans by being inspiring to shoot Sylvia’s pet stag. He cannot be blamed for this but it is not out of character given his role in Book 4.
· In Book 9, Ascanius is left in charge of the camp in Aeneas’ absence. He is respected by the men and seems to behave appropriately in offering them rewards of fine silver etc. But he gets carried away with his lust for glory and conflict, which is spotted by Apollo who keeps him away from the fighting. Is this alluding to Augustus’ peaceful nature by a reference to his patron god?
Dido
Dido has a lot in common with Aeneas: they are refugees, noble leaders of their people, have lost their spouses, subject to being manipulated by the gods, both trying to found new cities. Virgil compares them to Apollo and Diana, divine twins.
But they are also in strong opposition to each other – woman and man, Carthage and Rome (destined enemies), childless and father, passionate and reserved, wild wind and solid oak. Some suggest a parallel to Cleopatra and Antony or Cleopatra and Octavian.
Dido is a capable leader who is seen laying the foundations for her city in Book 1. But she is also a victim: of her brother who murdered her husband Sychaeus, of Juno and Venus, who manipulate her for their own purposes, of Rumour who presents to the world a scandalous affair as opposed to the marriage Dido believes she has entered into, of Aeneas who leaves her, and of Fate, who gives her no role in the foundation of the Roman race.
Pallas and Evander
Evander has a strong bond with Aeneas through his friendship with Anchises. In Book 8, he shows Aeneas the city just as Anchises had shown him the heroes in Book 6. Evander is pious and leads a simple life, reflecting Roman traditions. He entrusts Aeneas with his son, and when Pallas’ body is brought back, he calls upon Aeneas to avenge his death.
Pallas appears as a young boy when he asks Aeneas questions on their journey but is capable of giving a rousing speech on the battlefield when the men are dispirited. It is not so much his character but the effect of his death that is important.
By including Evander and Pallas into the story, Virgil can:
· Include a scene in Pallenteum, future Rome
· Show that friendship can be stronger than the enmity of war
· Show a leader with a modest lifestyle (like Augustus)
· Through the death of Pallas, provide a motive for Aeneas to pursue Turnus with furor
· Further explore father/son relationships
Latinus and Amata
Latinus is of great divine origin, son of Faunus, and welcomes Aeneas into his kingdom and is aware that Aeneas is the husband foretold for Lavinia. But he cannot resist Amata and allows war to be declared. In Book 12 he attempts to persuade Turnus to give up Lavinia but fails and withdraws.
Latinus’ fault is that he lacks the courage to pursue what he knows is required of Fate; his lack of piety in ignoring fate brings about the death of his wife and the destruction of his city. He is an ineffectual leader but not wholly condemnable.
Amata wishes Lavinia to marry Turnus, not an unknown foreigner like Aeneas. Juno sends Allecto to stir up her anger and ignite war with the Trojans. When she sees the city being sacked by the Trojans, she hangs herself in despair.
In portraying the whole family unit of the Latin leaders, Virgil is able to better show the destructive nature of war and particularly civil war, as husband and wife are on opposing sides.
Nisus and Euryalus
Nisus and Euryalus are minor characters yet Virgil dedicates almost the entirety of Book 9 to them. They are significant due to:
· Their youth – perhaps the tragedy is that, like Pallas, they are too young and inexperienced for war. The way we see Euryalus’ close relationship with his mother perhaps emphasises his youth further.
· Their violent killing – they seem to take pleasure in slaughter, and attack the Latins whilst they are asleep
· Their lack of piety – Euryalus, like Turnus, is betrayed by the spoils he takes for himself. They should be dedicated to the gods.
· Their friendship – Nisus chooses to die for his friend
· Being an example of men who are free to act and bring about their own downfall through their own self-indulgence and greed.
Mezentius and Lausus
Virgil does not use many epithets, but he uses ‘scorner of the gods’ for Mezentius, the polar opposite of pious Aeneas. His son Lausus is ‘known for his beauty’ and is said to have deserved a better father.
Mezentius is known to have used horrific forms of torture, roping living men to dead bodies to die out a lingering death. His awful behaviour led to his own people, the Etruscans, driving him out. Virgil’s characterisation of Mezentius leads us to see him as an impious, evil and undeserving father.
Whilst Mezentius is under attack by Aeneas, Lausus throws himself in the way of Aeneas’ spear in order to save his father. Aeneas, raging because of the death of young Pallas, is now responsible for killing Lausus, a boy similar to Pallas. Mezentius seems to change as the result of this; devasted by his son’s sacrifice to save him, he begins to demonstrate heroic behaviour.
Mezentius has his horse Rhaebus as his companion. He accepts his fate and knows it will either be victory or death. In his final charge towards Aeneas, he is presented as a hero. Aeneas throws his spear between the eyes of Rhaebus in order to kill its rider.
Camilla
Like Dido, she defies the traditional woman’s role. Camilla’s patron goddess is Diana, as Dido is compared to. Dido provides a female and emotionally charged episode at the beginning of the poem; Camilla is a parallel figure at the end. She is described by R.D. Williams as ‘a strange mixture of the beauty of and idyllic pastoral world and the heroic world of violence and cruelty’.
She dies because she is attracted to the exotic gold and purple finery of Choreus. Perhaps Virgil is making a point that extravagant wealth has no place in Roman civilisation, or perhaps he is being dismissive of a female warrior who could not give her mind to serious fighting and more concerned with material wealth.
Her death is full of pathos – she dies, like Dido, with one female companion. Her life leaves her ‘with a groan’ and she ‘fled in anger down to the shades’ - the exact same words used for Turnus’ death.
MODERN SCHOLARSHIP
Bell – Aeneas is a ‘proto-type of Augustus’
Camps – implies the worship of Hercules in Book 8 for freeing the Etruscans from Cacus is a reference to Augustus freeing Rome from Antony and civil war.
Cowan – most women in the Aeneid are ‘minor characters’ who are ‘shunted aside’ if they interfere
Cowan – Aeneas kills Turnus because he feels ‘a son’s duty’ towards Evander
Fox – claims Aeneas is ‘insipid’ (boring) and ‘odious’ (strongly dislikable)
Gildenhard - the Aeneid has ‘contemporary relevance’ as it explores sexual ethics, power, personal choice etc.
Glover – Virgil is ‘on the side of peace’
Gransden – events are predetermined by fate, but ‘precise moment and circumstances remain flexible’
Gransden – Aeneas' killing of Turnus is an act of piety
Gransden – Virgil created in the Aeneid a new kind of ‘Stoic Hero’
Griffin – the ‘haunting’ and ‘complex’ ending of the poem is deliberate
Hardie – Aeneas is ‘forced into a mission’ by circumstances beyond his control
Hardie – Aeneas is a ‘colourless’ character
Harrison – suggests a link between the theme of premature death and the death of Augustus’ nephew Marcellus
Harrison – Juno is a ‘soap opera b*tch’
Hulme – the Aeneid is a ‘grim narrative of war-time treachery’
Lyne – Virgil seems ‘curiously disinclined’ to show Aeneas relating to others
Mackie – Aeneas' concern to facilitate fate is the ‘cornerstone of his pietas’
Morgan – Virgil ‘goes out of his way’ to place Aeneas in situations where ‘an act of pietas can also be read as a contravention of pietas’
Quinn – Augustus wanted not personal glorification, but ‘justification of a cause’ (war)
Quinn – Aeneas is ‘an instrument of the gods’
Ramsby – Dido represents foreignness, links her to Cleopatra
Ramsby – The character of Camilla highlights ‘an inversion of traditional roles’, deems her a progressive figure
Sowerby – we feel sympathy for Turnus
Tarrant – Virgil's outlook is ‘ambivalent’
Williams – Camilla is ‘a strange mixture of the beauty of an idyllic pastoral world and the heroic world of violence and cruelty’
Williams – Turnus represents a barbaric and antique way of life that could have no part in Roman civilisation.