For my A level Classical Civilisation revision, I created a 'master document' of the main things I thought I might need to know for my exam. This includes book summaries, themes, characterisation, methods, and modern scholarship. I made this with the OCR specification in mind, but I hope it will come in useful for anyone studying or simply interested in the Odyssey.
Book Summaries
Book 1 – Invocation to the Muse. At a council of the gods, Zeus grants Athene’s plea to allow Odysseus to return home. Athene visits Telemachus, disguised as Mentor, encouraging him to find news of his father. Telemachus has new-found boldness and rebukes Penelope and the Suitors.
Book 2 – Telemachus calls an assembly and criticises the Suitors before secretly leaving.
Book 3 – Telemachus visits Nestor in Pylos – no news of Odysseus.
Book 4 – Telemachus visits Menelaus and Helen – they tell him about Odysseus’ exploits and Troy and remark how alike Telemachus is to him, before telling him his father is still alive. Meanwhile in Ithaca, the Suitors plan to kill Telemachus.
Book 5 – Zeus sends Hermes to order Calypso to release Odysseus – she reluctantly agrees and helps him build a raft. Before Odysseus can reach land, Poseidon destroys his raft, but with the help of Ino, eventually lands on Phaeacia and falls asleep.
Book 6 – Athene sends a dream to Nausicaa suggesting she go down to the river to wash clothes. She does so and meets the naked Odysseus, who she looks after and directs to the palace.
Book 7 – Odysseus is directed to the palace by disguised Athene. Detailed description of palace and garden. Odysseus begs for help from Arete and is well received by Alcinous.
Book 8 – Phaeacians agree to take Odysseus home. Demodocus sings of Troy and Ares and Aphrodite. Athletics contest where Odysseus hurls furthest discus. Alcinous asks who Odysseus is.
Book 9 – Odysseus reveals his identity and tells the story of his adventures with the Cicones, Lotus Eaters, and Polyphemus.
Book 10 - Odysseus gets bag of winds from Aeolus but is blown back. Laestrygonian encounter, Circe and Hermes episode. He learns he must visit the underworld. Elpenor dies.
Book 11 – Odysseus goes to the underworld, he meets Elpenor, who asks to be buried, prophet Teiresias, mother Anticleia, and various Greek heroes.
Book 12 – Odysseus returns to Circe’s island and bury Elpenor. Circe warns Odysseus of dangers on way home. They reach Thrinacie where all men die for eating cattle of sun gods. Odysseus reaches Calypso’s island.
Book 13 – Odysseus’ tale ends. Laden with gifts, the Phaeacians bring him back to Ithaca. He wakes not knowing where he is and tries to disguise himself to shepherd Athene. Athene reveals herself and helps him plan his approach.
Book 14 – Odysseus visits Eumaeus, who shows perfect xenia.
Book 15 – Telemachus arrives back in Ithaca and manages to hide from Suitors. Eumaeus tells Odysseus his story.
Book 16 – Telemachus arrives at the hut. Odysseus reveals himself upon Athene’s wish.
Book 17 – Telemachus greets his mother. Disguised Odysseus enters the hall and is assaulted by Antinous who throws a stool at him. Penelope sends for the beggar.
Book 18 – Disguised Odysseus fights with Irus and wins. Penelope extorts gifts from the Suitors.
Book 19 – Odysseus and Telemachus remove weapons from the hall. Eurycleia recognises Odysseus whilst washing his feet.
Book 20 – Odysseus and Penelope have worried and sleepness night. Odysseus meets Philoetius.
Book 21 – Penelope issues the bow challenge. Telemachus almost strings it but doesn’t. Suitors fails. Odysseus reveals himself and strings the bow.
Book 22 – Odysseus begins to shoot the Suitors. Telemachus realises he left store room open and catches Melanthius taking weapons. Athene, disguised as Mentor, helps them and eventually all Suitors are killed. House is cleansed and disloyal servants hung.
Book 23 – Eurycleia tells Penelope Odysseus has returned but she is suspicious. She gives the marriage bed test and is finally convinced.
Book 24 – Ghosts of Suitors arrive at Hades. Zeus and Athene prevent Suitors’ families from taking revenge.
Context
Composed in around 700 BC, set in the Bronze Age Mycenaean period (1600-1100 BC).
The Homeric question asks whether the Odyssey was composed by one person or many. Little is known about ‘Homer’.
Composed to be read orally by travelling bards, but later transmitted into writing.
Structure
The Odyssey can be divided into equal sections:
Books 1-2 – Telemachy
Books 5-8 – Odysseus' release and the Phaeacians
Books 9-12 - Flashback/the adventures
Books 13-16 – Odysseus' return to Ithaca, Eumaeus’ hut
Books 17-20 – Odysseus’ return to his palace
Books 21-24 – The bow, retribution and reconciliation
The flashback
· Separates fantasy elements from ‘real-life’ books
· Gives Odysseus a heroic warrior scene as he raids the Cicones
· Affects response of the audience, who will feel more invested in the storyteller
· Introduces dramatic irony – the audience know Odysseus must have got out of these situations somehow
· More irony – we question the authenticity of Odysseus’ stories
· Contributes to the theme of xenia – this is Odysseus’ gift to the Phaeacians in return for their hospitality
Epithets
· Are useful for characterisation and fitting language into the meter of the poetry
· Useful for identifying individuals
· Adds vividness and colour to the narrative, mix things up a bit
Formulae
· Useful for fitting common scenes into the meter of the poetry
· Add an element of rhythm and appealing predictability
· e.g Homer twice uses the identical description of Penelope and her veil in Book 1 and Book 16 - ‘When she came near the Suitors the great lady drew a fold of her shining veil across her cheeks’
Parallel scenes
· Repeated images, scenes, actions, dialogue, and description
· Descriptions of xenia all follow a similar pattern
Speeches
· Aristotle praised Homer for using so much speech and understanding that it was better to let characters speak for themselves.
· Display a character’s rhetorical skills
· Convey character through the tone the speaker uses
· Convey emotion
· Give information about relationships and how characters interact with each other
Description
· Creates vivid images in the audience’s minds e.g the blade of Calypso’s axe with a ‘handle of olive-wood fixed firmly to its head’ in Book 5
· Also appeal to the senses – sound in Book 9 as Polyphemus’ eye sizzles, or the clang of metal in Book 19 as Eurycleia drops Odysseus’ foot in the basin.
Similes
· The Homeric simile is one extended into a complete picture, giving more aspects of similarity to contemplate. E.g Like a fond father welcoming back his son after nine years abroad, his only son, the apple of his eye for whom he has sacrificed so much, the admirable swineherd through his arms around Telemachus the godlike youth and showered kisses on him, Book 16.
· Or can just be a simple simile - at dawn they were on us, thick as the leaves and flowers in spring, Book 9.
· Sometimes similes have a wider context and events are compared with things which Homer’s audience would know from everyday life. Athene beautifying Odysseus in Book 6 is compared to a craftsman embellishing silver with gold, Polyphemus’ staff is compared to the mast of a ship in Book 9.
· Similes make a scene appear more vivid as often they pick out a visual detail, for instance the spinning of the stake in Polyphemus’ eye is compared to a drill being spun into a piece of wood.
· Often appeal to the senses due to their vividness – the red-hot stake hissing in Polyphemus’ eye is compared with the sound of a blacksmith plunging hot iron into cold water.
· Similes also emphasise key moments e.g Double similes in blinding of Cyclopes Book 9, Book 21 where Odysseus strings the bow, when Odysseus attacks the suitors in Book 22.
· Similes often have a close ‘match’ with their respective character or situation. The Nausicaa/Artemis simile in Book 6 is appropriate as Artemis is an unmarried virgin, tall, and has nymphs/maids, exactly like Nausicaa.
· Sometimes similes can be inappropriate, for instance in Book 16 when Telemachus and Odysseus are reunited, they are compared to screeching vultures that are making noise because they have been robbed of their young. This does not apply to T and O’s situation.
Stories
· Main story within the story is Odysseus’ flashback in Books 9-12
· Cretean tales – have just enough truth to engage audience and perhaps enjoy challenge of what is a lie and what is truth, dramatic irony and suspense
· Other digressions such as the tale of Odysseus’ scar in Book 19 provide engaging anecdotes of Odysseus’ heroic past as well as dramatically freezing the action.
Role of the Bard
Book 8 - ‘All men honour and respect bards, for the Muse has taught them songs.’
Odysseus himself becomes the bard in Books 9-12 as he tells his tale himself. In Book 21 as he is stringing to bow, it is equated to the stringing of a lyre.
The two trained bards in the Odyssey have small yet significant roles – Phemius (Ithican bard) sings of men returning from Troy in Book 1 and is spared by Odysseus in Book 22.
Demodocus (Phaeacian bard) is blind. He first tells a tale of a quarrel between Odysseus and Achilles. His second is about the affair between Ares and Aphrodite. His final song is about Odysseus’ stratagem of the wooden horse.
Heroism
Odysseus can be seen as a ‘typical hero’
· Shown quarreling with Achilles in Book 8 by Demodocus, and speaking with the likes of Agamemnon and Heracles in Book 11 – enhances his status and makes the audience equate him with these legendary heroes
· Is of noble birth (Laertes)
· is good in battle as shown in the Cicones episode in Book 9 and in defeating the suitors against enormous odds
· Defeats the Phaeacians in a discus-throwing competition, defeats beggar Irus in boxing match
· Is worthy of divine attention and aid
· Has kleos (reputations, glory) - refuses immortality with Calypso, says to Phaeacians the whole world knows of his fame
· Physical beauty - ‘bold shoulders and strong thighs’
· Has time (public honour in the form of gifts)
But can also be seen as ‘a new kind of hero’ (Griffin) or an ‘anti-hero’ (Jones)
· Often employs deception in order to survive – Demodocus' song of the Trojan horse in Book 8 reminds us of his cunning, the Cretean tales, etc.
· He behaves selfishly – he loses all of his men (but is this the will of fate?)
· He fails in attempt to defend his men from Scylla
The Divine
Nature and role
· The immortals are portrayed as anthropomorphic – they meet in assemblies and have their own hierarchy, Zeus being at the top. They are not perfect, as highlighted in Demodocus’ tale of Ares and Aphrodite.
· Athene and Poseidon take the most major roles in the plot, as supporter and enemy respectively. Their actions shape the story: Zeus agrees to the release of Odysseus, Athene protects Odysseus throughout, Poseidon sends the trials on his journey.
· Their interaction with Odysseus reinforce his heroic nature – he is deemed ‘worthy’ of their help and time.
· They provide justice, but also gleeful vengeance.
· Add a further element of fantasy
Relationships with mortals
· The gods communicate with mortals via omens and dreams, and sometimes in person but usually disguised. When gods are visible, they are characterised by light, beauty, and speed – only heroes can recognise them.
· Mortals associate gods with punishment and fear – the Suitors warn Antinous that the beggar could be a god, Penelope’s first reaction is that the Suitors have been killed by an outraged immortal – anything unexpected could be the work of a god.
· The gods like sacrifices – Hermes' complains that he has had no offerings, and on the island of the Sun god, Odysseus and his men hope to appease the god by a sacrifice.
· Odysseus gets KLEOS from having Athene as a patron.
· Zeus – the thunderer, patron of supplicants, Olympian, son of Chronos, almighty. He is the first speaker in the proem. Much of the Odysseus revolves around xenia, and Nausicaa tells Odysseus that all strangers and beggars are under the protection of Zeus. The Suitors meet their fate not because of Odysseus’ great prowess, but because they disregarded the laws of Zeus.
· Athene – goddess of the flashing eyes, bright eyed, the warrior goddess. Plays an important role in Book 1 by convincing Zeus to release Odysseus from Calypso before visiting Telemachus. Presence felt in Phaeacia (Books 6-9), providing Odysseus with the olive-bush bed, clothes via Nausicaa, directions to the palace. When she meets Odysseus in Book 13, she engages with him like an equal or friend. She also helps Penelope, beautifying her or sending her to sleep. She also helps in the battle in the hall.
· Poseidon – sustainer of the earth, the earth-shaker, master of the sea. In response to Polyphemus’ call for revenge, Poseidon pursues Odysseus. He nearly stops Odysseus from reaching Scherie by sending a storm that wrecks his boat. He punishes the Phaeacians for helping Odysseus, on return from Ithaca their ship is turned to stone.
· Hermes – the giant killer, the messenger. Hermes appears twice, in Book 5 sent by Zeus to order Calypso to release Odysseus, and in Book 10 where he helps Odysseus outwit Circe.
Different societies
Ithaca
· Odysseus describes Ithaca as a ‘rough land’ which ‘nurtures fine men’. Life seems hard, but its people prosper
· Eumaeus gives us insight into the rural life – he lives half a day’s walk from the city where he has to go to deliver pigs.
· The people have respect for the gods – the water supply is presided over by a shrine, a cave on the shore is home to nymphs, Penelope and the palace servants provide good xenia, sacrifices and libations occur regularly.
· They are civilised and hold assemblies for important matters (do they functions effectively? Telemachus B2)
· Life is not luxurious – Penelope and the women weave, the palace is not described as grand in a way the Phaeacians’ is.
· Patriarchal society – Telemachus pronounces himself master and rebukes Penelope.
Cyclopes
· Odysseus describes their society as having ‘no assemblies, nor established legal codes’ and they live in ‘hollow caverns’.
· There is not much sense of community – the Cyclopes don’t seem to interact much and the others are not particularly fussed when Polyphemus is in pain.
· Despite the fertility of the land, they do not grow crops.
· Extremely bad xenia from Polyphemus
Phaeacians
· Nausicaa tells Odysseus that their land (Scherie) is remote and they come into contact with no other people.
· Idyllic country with flowing rivers and constant supply of fruit, a lavishly decorated palace, fine temples etc.
· Exceptionally talented seamen – they don’t use bows or quivers but spend time sailing. Their ships guide themselves.
· Harmonious domestic life – kind Alcinous, wool-making Arete, godlike sons and smart and beautiful Nausicaa.
· BUT – Odysseus warned to keep himself out of view as the people have little affection for strangers. Close relationship with Poseidon, Odysseus’ enemy.
Characterisation
· Direct speech – a skilled bard would have had a special voice for each character. Direct speech gives us insight into the dynamics of interpersonal relationships and the qualities of the speaker.
· Epithets – reminds us of the defining features of a character – wise Penelope, resourceful Odysseus. Also, parentage/patronymic is traditional in epic and reminds us of social status e.g Laertes’ son.
· Narrative voice – told either by impersonal narrator Homer or Odysseus.
Disguise and deception
· The primary purpose of Odysseus’ cunning is survival and to get what he needs to reach home. But Athene rightly perceives his enjoyment of intellectual trickery - ‘you were always an obstinate, cunning and irrepressible intriguer’. (b13)
· Disguise and deception have two key effects - as realistic device in a credible plot and as a means of sustaining maximum interest from the audience through dramatic irony.
· Odysseus’ disguise as a beggar makes him experience firsthand the sufferings endured by his household and the immorality of the suitors. As a result, the audience sympathise with Odysseus and later feel poetic justice when the suitors are finally punished.
· Penelope continually and consistently deceives the suitors e.g by the shroud unravelling. Her deception has an emotional element as it concerns her familial and romantic relationships, and by deceiving the suitors she is risking her reputation and even her safety. She does all of this out of hope Odysseus will return but she does not know that he will – all she can do is wait, unlike Odysseus, who has an active quest.
Can appear in many forms:
· Physical disguise (Book 1 where Athene is disguised as Mentor)
· Changes in physical form in order to manipulate reactions of others (Book 6 where Athene beautifies Odysseus before Nausicaa, hair like hyacinth simile)
· Behaviour which has a hidden motive (Book 10 where Odysseus charges at Circe)
· Things said which are not true/half-truths (Cretan tale in Book 14 where he tells Eumaeus he was born in Crete and all his men died in Egypt for plundering farms)
· Word play and double meanings (Book 9 where Odysseus tells the Cyclopes his name is ‘nobody’)
Recognition
There are two types of recognition scene: Odysseus is recognised by accident, or he reveals himself.
· First recognition scene is when Odysseus recognises Ithaca in Book 13 – it is shrouded in mist by Athene to protect him, and he doesn’t recognise where he is at first, nor that Athene is the young shepherd. When it is finally revealed he is in Ithaca, he is not overjoyed, but spins a Cretan tale.
· Recognition between Telemachus and Odysseus in Book 16 is emotional – they sob with joy and are likened by Homer to vultures.
· Another sad recognition scene is Argus in Book 17. Upon seeing his master, the old dog’s twenty-year wait is over, and he can finally release himself to death – Odysseus cannot fully react, he turns his head and brushes away a tear. The brevity and understatement of this scene give it extreme poignancy.
· The recognition of Odysseus by Eurycleia happens because Odysseus acts with uncharacteristic naivety.
· Odysseus finally reveals himself to the palace as he strings the bow in Book 21, but not by name, but by revealing the crimes they have committed against him.
· Perhaps the most gratifying recognition scene is in Book 23 when Odysseus and Penelope are finally back together. Penelope’s initial skepticism and marriage bed test heighten the relief when she finally recognises him.
Fantasy and the supernatural
Fantasy elements enhance the epic by:
· Stirring up terror and giving the excitement of a horror film
· Portrays a world beyond the experience of the audience and may provoke questions about whether these worlds exist
· Produces images of barbarian habits that unite Greeks in their civilised codes of behaviour
· Enhances Odysseus’ status as hero as he takes on and survives these extreme dangers
The Cyclopes, Scylla and Charybdis, the Sirens, and Lotus eaters are all fantasical creations that inspired vase painters for years. In Book 12, Scylla has three rows of teeth, six heads, and six arms. The Lotus eaters are mysterious, and we know little about them other than what they eat. The Phaeacians seem to live in a fantasy world, too, where ships sail themselves, ever-producing fruit gardens, etc.
Fate
The proem highlights that it was the transgression of Odysseus’ men that brought about their deaths. A few lines later, Zeus tells the council of the gods that men blame the gods for their suffering, when it is their own fault.
Examples of human responsibility are shown throughout the poem – Odysseus says that Aeolus’ bag of winds was doomed because of his and his crews’ stupidity. The Suitors are doomed to die because of their disregard for xenia and the laws of Zeus, but Odysseus spares Phemius and Medon, highlighting that men have control over their own fate.
Yet there is an underpinning sense of fate and its definitive nature. In Book 1, Athene states that it is the gods who will decide whether or not Odysseus will return to Ithaca. When Aeolus sees Odysseus and his men return, he says that he and his men must be detested by the gods and refuses to intervene further.
Justice and revenge
Zeus says that all men should accept the consequences of their actions, but also tells Poseidon that gods have every right to take revenge to mortals who disrespect them. He is seen as the enforcer or justice – Athene goes to him to intervene.
It was felt that good behaviour should be rewarded:
· Odysseus successfully returns home and defeats the suitors as reward for his love of his oikos and the challenges he has faced
· Penelope has her husband restored as reward for her loyalty, resistance, preservation of the oikos
· Telemachus has his father restored as reward for trying to find news of Odysseus, showing loyalty to the oikos and beginning to stand up against the suitors
· Eumaeus has his master restored as reward for being a good host, loyal to Odysseus and the oikos, fighting on Odysseus’ side
· Eurycleia has her master restored as reward for her loyalty and devotion, not revealing Odysseus’ identity, cooperating in arrangements for the battle in the hall (barring the door)
And that bad behaviour should be punished:
· The Cyclopes is punished by being blinded for disrespecting Zeus and laws of xenia
· The suitors are all punished by death for disrespecting Odysseus’ household and laws of xenia
· The disloyal slaves are punished by being hung and tortured for sleeping with and helping the suitors
· Odysseus’ men are punished by death for eating cattle of the sun god, or stupidity – BUT not always their fault so not justice.
But some crimes go unpunished – the families of the suitors never get to avenge their deaths, Poseidon is never punished for his relentless malice.
Odysseus’ goal is to punish the Suitors and he claims in Book 23 that the Suitors fells because they disrespected the laws of Zeus, yet during the battle he shows signs of delighting in personal revenge. Telemachus’ hanging and torture of the disloyal maids seems to be an act of cruelty rather than justice.
Xenia
Xenia is a reciprocal agreement between host and guest – this code of behaviour was sacred to Zeus. To behave inappropriately would be to disrespect Zeus.
Nearly every encounter in the Odyssey is constructed around xenia: the stranger arrives, is welcomed and offered, food, drink, a bath and bed – no enquiries are made as to their identity until those needs are satisfied. To pay back the host, the guest provides a gift, often which is a story.
Good xenia
Eumaeus, Book 14 – stops the dogs from eating Odysseus. Invites him in with the offer of food and wine and a bed. Allows Odysseus to ask him questions before asking who his guest is.
Phaeacians, Books 6-12 - Nausicaa says ‘all strangers and beggars come under the protection of Zeus’ - she gets it. Echeneus has to hurry Alcinous along in providing xenia but when he does so it is great. They deliver Odysseus home, his gift to them was his story.
Circe – gives Odysseus and the remainder of his men a place to stay, provides good advice to him.
Calypso – receives him ‘kindly’, provides him accommodation and food, helps him build raft upon departure
Bad xenia
The Suitors – they eat Odysseus’ food, slaughter his animals, disrespect and plot to kill Telemachus, insult disguised Odysseus, abuse servants.
Polyphemus – asks who Odysseus is before providing anything. His gift to him is to eat him last. Doesn’t offer any food, curses them on their departure. But were Odysseus and his men innocent? They invited themselves in, ate his food etc. Just as the suitors have.
Circe – turns his men to pigs, delays his journey by a year, advice not that useful as Teiresias says it too.
Calypso – reluctant to let him leave, keeps him there for seven years even though he is unhappy, the raft breaks anyway
Family
Family relationships are at the heart of the Odyssey, from Odysseus’ family unit to the Olympian gods, to the households seen on Odysseus’ journey, to the fantastical Phaeacians.
The gods are influenced by their families – Athene asks father Zeus to release Odysseus only when Poseidon is safely out of the way, Poseidon punishes Odysseus because of a prayer from his son.
The Phaeacians are a close-knit family – Arete seems to be the decision maker, the sons are the pride and joy of Alcinous.
In Book 11 we see Odysseus with his mother, where there is great pathos as her shape slips through his hands as he tries to embrace her. Eurycleia is very much part of the family and has close relationships with all.
Romantic relationships
Odysseus’ whole quest is centered around returning home to his wife.
Questions of fidelity are central to the epic and Penelope is often directly or indirectly compared to Clytamnestra, who betrayed her husband Agamemnon. In Book 11, Agamemnon warns Odysseus to never be too trustful of your wife but goes on to say that Penelope would never do such a thing as Clytamnestra.
The man’s fidelity is not really an issue (perhaps considered hypocritical by modern audiences) and Odysseus’ sexual relations with Calypso and Circe is not raised as a moral problem. Whilst his relationship with Athene is on another plain, with her status as a goddess and one of chastity, their closeness and shared intelligence is not dissimilar to his relationship with Penelope.
Women
Marriage is a fundamental part of the social order and requires women to be partners – In Book 11, Odysseus asks his mother Anticleia whether Penelope is keeping their estate safe, implying women are trusted to manage affairs in their husbands’ absence. Odysseus is delighted when Penelope extorts gifts from the suitors. Arete also seems to be an equal in the household.
Sexual fidelity is essential for women – Penelope is on the verge of remarrying but does not do so. The maid who became mistresses to the Suitors were punished most harshly.
Weaving is part of a woman’s household role – even Calypso and Circe conform to this. Penelope’s shroud weaving trick to the Suitors sees her conforming to social expectation whilst cunningly biding her time and remaining loyal to Odysseus.
Women are often shown to be inscrutable – suitors are baffled by Penelope, Queen Arete strangely quiet upon Odysseus’ supplication, Telemachus is baffled by Penelope’s refusal to immediately accept Odysseus.
Athene is feminine but in an asexual, big-sister way. She helps Odysseus but also knows her place in the Olympian society.
Slaves
The freeborn/slave status of these people is not stressed, their loyalty is their defining characteristic. To modern audiences, however, the inclusion of slaves may sit uncomfortably or even be considered detrimental to the epic.
Eumaeus and Eurycleia seem to be exemplary slaves. Eumaeus takes serious responsibility for his master’s livestock and resents the Suitors. Eurycleia is equally outraged at the Suitors is is honoured with being Telemachus’ torchbearer.
MODERN SCHOLARSHIP
Butler – not enough emphasis is made on female characters
Camps – Homer's descriptions have an ‘effective but effortless appeal to the hearer’s eye and mind’
Camps – Zeus is ‘secure and relaxed in his supremacy and benevolent in the exercise of it’
Emyln-Jones – Odysseus' Cretan tales and flashback story to the Phaeacians sees him ‘providing a convincing story, at least passably presented’ which is ‘one of the obligations of the guest’
Finley – women are ‘naturally inferior’ in the Odyssey
Finley – the gods make actual what is already implicit, they assert reality
Barbara Graziosi – Odysseus ‘cannot be pinned down’ in terms of character.
Graziosi - The gods are ‘embarrassing and even laughable’.
Griffin – Penelope is a ‘model of fidelity’
Griffin – Homer is ‘not afraid of the natural’ (in terms of graphic description e.g squid simile)
Griffin – Odysseus is ‘a new kind of hero... the survivor’
Griffin – the Odyssey provides a ‘whole gallery’ of contrasting female figures who are ‘interesting’ and ‘mysterious’
Griffin – the whole poem is pervaded by an explicit theory of justice and divine behaviour
Edith Hall – draws comparisons between Homeric epic and modern rap music
Hall – Odysseus was the ‘ideal ancient Greek male’ - loyal wife, divine relationships, king.
Peter Jones – suggests Odysseus is an ‘anti-hero’; a selfish man who employs disguise and deceit to gain the most disreputable ends.
Jones – the household, rather than the battlefield, is the centre of the Odyssean world
Jones – Athene's patronage enhances Odysseus’ status as hero
Kahane – Odysseus' reunion with Penelope is the most prominent part of the epic
Murnaghan – the Odyssey is ‘governed by Athene’s intervention’, but coloured by the premise that Odysseus is ‘always in control’.
Schein – similes ‘expand the universe of the poem’
Selby – xenia is a way of gauging a society’s level of civilisation.
Stanton – Justice in the Odyssey is not the same for modern readers
Thorpe – xenia ‘links separate families’ and ‘encourages a feeling of class solidarity’
West – Odysseus abuses the xenia he is shown