For my A level in Classical Civilisation, I compiled 'master documents' for each module. Whilst made with the OCR specification in mind, I hope they will be of use and interest to all. I tried to cover everything I might need for the exam, but needless to say this is a non-exhaustive piece of work. Enjoy!
TIMELINE
44 BC – 15th March – Assassination of Julius Caesar
- May – Octavian arrives in Rome, meets with Antony
- Comet appears during Caesar’s games – interpreted as a sign of his deification.
43 BC – Senate declares war against Antony, Battle of Mutina
- Octavian becomes consul
- Second Triumvirate’s proscriptions began
- P.S aureus of Octavian with Caesar the man
42 BC – Battle of Philippi, vows temple to Mars Ultor
- Second Triumvirate seize land to give to veterans
41 BC – Propertius writes Elegies 1.22 - not prescribed source but may be useful.
40 BC – Treaty of Brundisium
- Antony marries Octavia
39 BC – Second Triumvirate make pact with Sextus Pompeius to end blockade of grain supply
- Octavian divorces Scribonia and marries Livia
38 BC – Octavian begins war again Sextus Pompeius
37 BC – Antony marries Cleopatra
36 BC – Agrippa and Octavian begin war against Sextus Pompeius
- Lepidus stripped of triumviral powers after attempting to take over Sicily
35 BC – Octavian campaigns in Dalmatia
34 BC – Donations of Alexandria
33 BC – Octavian's second consulship
- Antony tries to declare Caesarion Caesar’s official heir
32 BC – Octavian seizes Antony’s will from the Senate
- Senate declares war against Cleopatra
- P.S work begins on the Mausoleum
- P.S denarius of Octavian alongside Pax with olive branch and cornucopia
31 BC – Octavian's third consulship
- Battle of Actium
- P.S Portrait of Livia
30 BC – Octavian's fourth consulship
- Deaths of Antony, Cleopatra, Caesarion. Rest of the children cared for by Octavia.
- P.S Horace Epode 9
- P.S Augustus and Isis relief, Kalabsha Gate
29 BC – Octavian's fifth consulship
- Triple triumph
28 BC – Octavian’s sixth consulship
- Octavian carries out census of the Senate
- P.S aureus of Octavian alongside Octavian on bench holding scroll
27 BC – Octavian's seventh consulship
- First Settlement (‘Augustus’ given, clipeium virtutis dedicated, imperium for ten years)
26 BC – Augustus' eighth consulship
25 BC – Augustus' ninth consulship
- Closes gates of temple of Janus
24 BC – Augustus' tenth consulship
23 BC – Augustus' eleventh consulship
- Augustus very ill and nearly dies
- Second Settlement (lays down consulship, given tribunician power, imperium)
- Death of Marcellus
- P.S Propertius 3.11
- P.S Horace Odes 1.37
- P.S Horace Odes 3.6
- P.S Horace Odes 3.14
22 BC – Augustus refuses the dictatorship
21 BC – Augustus forces Agrippa to marry Julia the Elder
20 BC – Return of the Parthian standards lost by Crassus
- P.S Prima Porta statue
- P.S construction begins on Forum Augustum
- P.S Propertius Elegies 3.4
- P.S Propertius Elegies 3.12
19 BC – Third settlement (imperium for life)
- P.S denarius of Augustus with rayed comet (Caesar the god)
18 BC – First Leges Juliae passed
17 BC – Augustus adopts grandsons Gaius and Lucius
- Saecular Games celebrated, Golden Age begins
- P.S Horace Carmen Saeculare
16 BC – P.S Propertius Elegies 4.6
15 BC – Virgil's Aeneid published
14 BC -
13 BC – Tiberius' first consulship
- P.S work begins on the Ara Pacis
- P.S Horace Odes 4.15
- P.S Horace Odes 4.4
12 BC – Deaths of Agrippa and Lepidus
- Augustus elected Pontifex Maximus
- P.S denarius of Augustus with sacrifical implements
11 BC – Tiberius marries Julia the Elder
10 BC -
9 BC – P.S dedication of the Ara Pacis
8 BC – Death of Maecenas
7 BC – Tiberius' second consulship
6 BC -
5 BC – Senate declares Gaius and Lucius princeps iuventutis
4 BC – P.S aureus Gaius and Lucius as princeps iuventutis with priestly symbols alongside Augustus
3 BC -
2 BC – Augustus' thirteenth consulship
- Augustus declared pater patriae
- Julia the Elder exiled
1 BC -
1 AD – Gaius' first consulship
2 AD – Death of Lucius
- P.S Forum of Augustus opened
3 AD -
4 AD – Death of Gaius
- Augustus adopts Tiberius
5 AD -
6 AD -
7 AD -
8 AD – Julia the Younger sent into exile
- P.S Ovid’s Metamorphoses published
9 AD – Agrippa Posthumus exiled
- Varus disaster
- Lex Papia Poppeia introduces further marriage regulations
10 AD -
11 AD -
12 AD -
13 AD – Tiberius given maius imperium
- P.S Res Gestae completed and deposited with the Vestal Virgins
14 AD – Death of Augustus
BACKGROUND OF JULIUS CAESAR
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman politician and general. He was born into the ancient Julian clan and traced his ancestors back to the legendary founders of Rome: Aeneas (and his mother Venus) and Romulus (and his father Mars).
Caesar was very popular with the common people of Rome as he sought to improve their living conditions through initiatives such as land distribution.
He was one of the most powerful men in Rome in the first century BC. - as a gifted military general and public speaker he advanced quickly up the political ladder, becoming Pontifex Maximus and consul.
Caesar then formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey, a prominent general, and the wealthy Crassus. The three men used their great power to dominate Roman politics. Many saw this as unconstitutional as they were bypassing the tradition (and legal) routes to power. Crassus died in 53 BC (where he lost the standards in Parthia!) which left only Caesar and Pompey, who's squabbling soon turned into civil war when Caesar marched his army across the Rubicon. Eventually Pompey fled to Egypt where he was later beheaded.
Following his victory in civil war, Caesar became dictator for a year, then dictator for ten years, then dictator in perpetuity. In all but name, Caesar was king of Rome. Whilst he ruled, Caesar began several ambitious architectural projects to improve Rome e.g Forum Iulium. He also doubled the pay of soldiers. Caesar was famed for his clemency, pardoning those who had fought with Pompey.
On the Ides of March, Caesar was ambushed by a gang of senators at the Theatre of Pompey. Brutus and Cassius led the conspiracy but around sixty men were involved. Caesar was stabbed twenty-three times.
44-42 BC - OCTAVIAN ARRIVING IN ROME
Becoming Caesar
Octavian was just eighteen years old when he entered Roman politics upon Caesar’s death in 44 BC. He had been born into a wealthy but politically insignificant family, the Octavii. Caesar’s will stated that Octavian was his heir and requested that he take his name. Octavian interpreted this as a legal adoption – he suddenly had important and divine ancestors that would help him distinguish himself in Roman politics.
After arriving in Rome, Octavian abandoned his old name in favour of Gaius Julius Caesar.
Fulfilling Caesar’s promises
At this stage, Octavian’s public image was entirely defined by his relationship with Caesar. His first move in Rome was to fulfil a request made in Caesar’s will that seventy-five denarii be given to each plebeian. Octavian had to borrow money to fulfil this request, but it won him popularity with the urban poor and solidified his image as Caesar’s heir. He also held games in honour of Venus that had been promised by Caesar – a combination of cash and entertainment had been used for years as a quick way to win popularity with the poorer classes. A century later, Juvenal coined the phrase ‘panem et circenses’, bread and games. At the games of Venus, a comet appeared over the sky, interpreted as a sign of Caesar’s deification.
Entering the Senate
Mark Antony was also attempting to position himself as rightful heir to Caesar – he won popular support by delivering a powerful speech at Caesar’s funeral attacking the assassins, causing them to flee Rome.
Many senators saw Octavian as the lesser of two evils. Despite the fact he was only eighteen (the usual age for entering the senate was 30), he was inducted into the senate and sent to help lead an army against Antony at Mutina. The consuls at the time, Hirtius and Pansa, were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of the Senate’s army. The Senate tried to curb Octavian’s power by refusing to give him honours for the victory. Octavian then marched his army on Rome and demanded the consulship. The Senate had no army to defend itself and so had to bow to his demand.
The Second Triumvirate
Octavian formed an alliance with Antony and Lepidus in 43 BC – unlike the First Triumvirate, this one had been ratified by a law which gave the three men extraordinary powers for a five-year period.
They solidified their power and alliance by setting out proscriptions which named individual senators as public enemies. Once proscribed, a person’s property was confiscated, and they could legally be killed. As a result of the proscription the Triumvirate could both eliminate any political rivals as well as gaining wealth through confiscated goods. At least 100 people were killed through the proscriptions. The proscriptions were public, and most were aware of Octavian’s role in them, perhaps leading him to be seen as power-hungry and ruthless – at least to the politically-savvy upper classes.
Divi Filius: The Son of a God
In 42 BC, the Senate declared Julius Caesar a god, allowing Octavian to be able to call himself ‘son of a god’. Many Romans liked to claim they were distant descendants of the gods, but Octavian’s claim gave him an aura of importance and authority that few mortals could rival.
Avenging Caesar
The Romans had an unwritten code of ‘proper behaviour’ referred to as the mos maiorum, ‘the ways of our ancestors’. This put great emphasis on duty, therefore Octavian and Antony had to be seen as avenging their duty to Caesar. The Battle of Philippi in 42 BC saw their victory over Brutus and Cassius, who were forced to commit suicide. Here Octavian vowed to dedicate a temple to Mars Ultor in thanks for the victory (fulfilled in 2 BC when the Forum of Augustus opened).
42-30 BC - POWER STRUGGLE AND PROPAGANDA WAR
By 42 BC the Second Triumvirate were in firm command of the Roman empire. Following Philippi, they drew up the Treaty of Brundisium, giving each man a portion of the empire to govern. Octavian was to control the western provinces, Antony the east provinces, and Lepidus the African provinces.
Imperator Octavian
Also at this time, the son of Pompey the great, Sextus Pompeius, had taken control of Sicily and was blocking Rome’s trade routes, making it very difficult to get grain into the city. By 39 BC this almost caused a famine. Octavian worked with Agrippa to plan a naval campaign against Sextus Pompeius.
In 38 BC, Octavian added ‘imperator’ to his name, meaning ‘commander’. This strengthened his link to Caesar, who had also been called this, and encouraged the idea of Octavian as a great military leader.
By 36 BC, Agrippa had gathered and trained an impressive fleet that he led to Sicily, totally destroying Sextus Pompeius’ navy. Octavian later celebrated this as a great personal victory, erecting a rostral column decorated with he prows of defeated ships and topped with a golden statue of himself.
Triumvirate Falls Apart
After eliminating all outside threats, the triumvirate began to turn on each other. In 36 BC, Octavian bribed some of Lepidus’ legions to turn on him, effectively ending. He was exiled to his country estate until his death in 12 BC. The years that followed were characterised by intense competition between Octavian and Antony that would ultimately lead to civil war in 32/31 BC.
The Propaganda War – Octavian as Benefactor
Despite holding almost all positions of political power, the elite senatorial class were only a small majority of Rome’s population. Octavian, like Caesar, recognised that the support of the urban poor could be a much more powerful asset. To gain their favour, Octavian positioned himself as the generous benefactor of the people and of the city.
One of Octavian’s key strategies for this was to have himself and his followers make gifts to the people and the city. In 42 BC, he started work on a new temple in honour of Caesar, the Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar in the Roman Forum. In 34 BC, Statilus Taurus, a close ally of Octavian, commissioned a new stone amphitheatre to be used for gladitoral and animal games. Agrippa also oversaw a programme of urban renewal, repairing streets and sewer systems as well as a range of public buildings. All these projects were highly visible and were designed to improve the quality of Roman life.
The Propaganda War – Octavian as Apollo’s favourite
Perhaps the most striking feature of the propaganda war was that Octavian and Antony each chose to align themselves with a particular patron god. Antony aligned himself with Dionysus, god of wine and theatre. Octavian chose Apollo, whose spheres of influence included the sun, prophecy, medicine, music, and civilisation. Apollo also stood for discipline, moderation and morality.
The Roman people would have been very familiar with both these gods and their associations. Octavian needed to convey the idea he was a force for civilisation, Antony needed to convey the idea he would end war and bring celebrations and plenty. By publishing their own images alongside symbols of their respective gods, this could easily be done.
This tactic is called co-marketing. When the audience is presented with a well-known thing alongside a less well-known thing, they transfer what they know from the well-known thing onto the other. E.g a new sports car is shown alongside a prowling panther. The audience expects what the know about the panther (powerful, fast, etc.) onto the car. The same was showing yourself alongside Dionysus or Apollo.
But this strategy also had downsides – traditionally it was Hellenistic kings who had associated themselves with particular gods, which might have made the pair seem like aspiring monarchs rather than traditional republicans.
Octavian continued to associate himself with Apollo throughout his life.
Livia and Octavian
Although excluded from holding political office themselves, Roman women could play an important role in supporting the political careers of their husbands. Often marriages were made to solidify political alliances. As a well-behaved wife, a reputation for duty and chastity could be a real asset.
In 38 BC, Octavian’s then-wife Scribonia gave birth to Julia – on the same day, Octavian divorced Scribonia to marry Livia. Livia came from one of the oldest noble families in Rome – the Claudii. This made her an ideal partner as Octavian could take advantage of her excellent family connections. Livia was also famously beautiful and highly intelligent. She fulfilled all the duties of a Roman matrona. It was reported she even spun and wove all of Octavian’s clothes herself, giving the impression that Octavian embodied traditional Roman behaviour and values.
Antony Mismanages his Public Image
Whilst Octavian was setting up a tradiitonal Roman household to solidify his image as a conservative Roman, Antony was doing quite the opposite. Antony was often away from Rome, entertaining a love affair with Egyptian queen Cleopatra. This alienated Antony even further from Octavian, whose supporters smeared Antony’s image with accusations of anti-Roman behaviour, decadence and effeminacy.
Antony’s choice of Cleopatra as a mistress caused great scandal in Rome – normally, a man would choose a lover of lower status than himself so that any children they had would not be legitimate and therefore could not enter the realm of politics as an official heir. Although Cleopatra was a foreigner to Rome, she was the ruler of a rich and powerful state; she was at least Antony’s equal, if not his better. When Cleopatra bore Antony’s children in 40 BC, they were Egyptian royalty, and a very dangerous prospect if they ever came to Rome and stake a claim to power. Cleopatra had also been Caesar’s mistress and bore him a child named Caesarion.
In 36 BC, Antony moved to Alexandria to live with Cleopatra full-time, marrying her despite still being married to Octavia. Roman values tolerated infidelity, but not bigamy. Octavian’s side claimed Anton has been bewitched by Cleopatra, robbed of his senses and masculinity.
Contrast this with Octavian’s relationship with Livia, which offered a stark counterpoint to Antony’s untraditional and dangerous relationship with Cleopatra.
Antony must have been aware of how his actions went down in Rome. Many sources tend to portray him as a love-struck fool, suggesting he was so distracted by his love for Cleopatra and his new role as Dionysus that he neither understood nor cared for what people in Rome thought of him. This seems a little farfetched – Antony saw first-hand from Caesar’s assassination what could happen when public opinion turned against you. It seems more likely that Antony was taking a larger picture perspective, and was aiming his image towards the wealthy eastern empire.
Antony’s Fatal Mistake: The Donations of Alexandria
In 34 BC, using Cleopatra’s money, Antony launched a campaign in Armenia. Instead of celebrating his triumph in Rome, it was celebrated in Alexandria. This was a highly symbolic step and Octavian’s supporters were quick to interpret its meaning: Antony wanted to diminish the power of Rome and perhaps even make Alexandria the centre of the empire.
Antony also gave away great swathes of Roman-controlled land to Cleopatra and her children. Cleopatra was also proclaimed ‘Queen of Kings’ and her children declared kings, too. Considering Rome’s problematic past with monarchy, this was a dangerous move on Antony’s part.
Octavian Seals Antony’s Fate
In 32 BC, Octavian seized Antony’s will from the Temple of Vesta. He called a meeting of the Senate to read it aloud. The will stated that Antony wished to be buried alongside Cleopatra in Alexandria – the ultimate sign of Antony’s disloyalty to Rome. Octavian took advantage of the Senate’s anger and convinced them to declare war against Cleopatra and Egypt. By declaring war on Cleopatra and not Antony, Octavian could ensure that the war could not be perceived as civil but a campaign against a dangerous foreign power.
At the same time as this, Octavian began work on his mausoleum to contrast himself with Antony, showing his loyalty to Rome.
Octavian Brings Peace
From the outset, Octavian presented this war as a campaign to bring peace to the empire by putting down a dangerous foreign monarch. The coin showing him alongside Pax in 32-29 BC highlights this.
The decisive conflict of the civil war was on September 2nd, 31 BC. The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought just off the coast of Greece. With the help of Agrippa, Octavian led his forces to victory over Antony and Cleopatra’s navy. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Alexandria; when Octavian arrived at Alexandria the following year with his army, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra first tried to negotiate with Octavian before committing suicide 11 days later.
Octavian took Egypt as a province. Though he was never officially named Pharoah, he was depicted this way in Egypt – see Kalabsha gate prescribed source.
Spinning Actium
Actium marked the end of Octavian’s struggle with Antony and ensured that he would now be in sole control of Rome. Nobody remained who had enough money, support and experience to challenge him. As a result, Octavian used Actium as a recurring theme in works of art and literature. The battle was a turning point and the beginning of the age of Octavian and his uncontested regime.
But the truth of the battle was problematic: it ended in flight and surrender, not decisive victory, Octavian had taken a backseat; Agrippa was the true military genius, and the battle had been fought between Romans. It was a civil war. It is estimated that at least 7,000 Roman soldiers had been killed at Actium.
Of course, this truth did not complement the public image that Octavian wanted to create, so he recast the events to suit his needs. Octavian’s ‘official version’ of the battle can be cobbled together from literary sources that depict the battle e.g. Horace’s Epode 9, Horace’s Odes 1.37, Propertius Elegies 3.11.
Octavian also made a number of highly visible gestures to commemorate Actium. In 29 BC, the Senate awarded him a triple triumph. No general had ever been awarded three triumphs before. His chariot was followed by spoils of the battle, a statue of Cleopatra on her deathbed and with her surviving children locked in chains.
The most symbolic act of the triumph was the closing of the gates of the Temple of Janus Quirinus, symbolising that peace had been restored to Rome. Although the tradition was well established, it had fallen out of practice. A triumphal arch was also built in the Forum. He also founded a new city in Greece at the spot his army camped before the battle, named Nikopolis, ‘city of victory’. The Actian games were held at Nikopolis in 16 BC.
29 BC – AD 14, Augustus’ Reign
Over the course of his forty-one-year dominance Octavian continued to carefully manage his public image as well as the image of Rome itself. His security depended on all Romans buying into the idea that he was the best man to lead Rome and the empire and that they were better off under his leadership. Considering that Rome had been a Republic founded on the idea that one man should not rule alone, this was no easy task.
Augustus Saves the Republic
Octavian presented the idea that he had saved the Republic from ambitious politicians and civil wars.
During his rise to power, Octavian had been given a number of extraordinary powers by the Senate which went against political tradition – he had been admitted to the Senate at the premature age of eighteen, held the consulship too young, commanded armies before holding public office, and as triumvir suspended courts and free elections. Such powers could make him look like a tyrant and even bring about a similar fate to his adoptive father.
In 28 BC, Octavian was elected Princeps Senatus, giving him the right to speak first in the Senate, allowing him to direct its actions. He continued to hold the position of consul. Comfortable in the authority that just these positions gave him, he officially relinquished all the aforementioned unconstitutional powers he held in 27 BC – this was known as the First Settlement, signalling an end to the crisis period of the civil wars and signalling that Octavian did not plan on holding absolutely power indefinitely as Caesar did. The aureus of 28 BC of Octavian on a magistrate’s chair illustrates this.
Thanks to this politically savvy move, Octavian could lead people into believing he was a hero who kept extraordinary powers just long enough to navigate Rome through a period of crisis before returning to his natural and lesser role in the Senate. Yet in reality, Octavian had barely lost any power at all. He could direct the activities of the Senate and through his wealth could influence elections and act as patron for Rome. He had loyal veterans and commanders such as Agrippa, so he could still control the military.
In response to Octavian’s relinquishing of some powers, the Senate granted him a number of additional honours, bestowing on him the civic crown, giving him control of Spain, Gaul, Egypt and Syria. He was referred to as ‘princeps’ which means ‘leading man’. This had no official power but implied he was leader of Rome. The Senate also commissioned a golden shield, the Clipeus Virtutis, engraved with his four cardinal values (clementia, virtus, iustitia and pietas) and displayed in the Senate House.
Perhaps the most significant honour was Octavian’s new name: Augustus. The word derives from Latin ‘augere’, which means to increase, enrich, or praise. It also holds religious connotations as it was linked to the Lares, the Roman household gods. It also relates to the practice of augury. The ruthless, unconstitutional Octavian had been replaced by the benevolent rule of Augustus.
Augustus the Religious Leader
In Rome, it was usual for prominent politicians and their families to hold priesthoods. For instance, triumvir Lepidus had held the position of Pontifex Maximus, ‘chief priest’. An important part of Augustus’ ‘rebrand’ was to stress his piety and links to the religious sphere. This made him more appealing to older conservative who believed Rome’s recent troubles were caused by neglecting the gods.
Augustus cultivated his image as religious leader in many ways:
· He was a member of almost every priestly College
· Revived priestly colleges that had fallen out of observance such as the Arval Bretheren
· Revived individual priesthoods that had fallen out of observance such as the Flamen Dialis
· Reformed traditional religious festivals such as the Lupercalia
· Oversaw the repair of eighty-two temples throughout the city
· Built new temples such as Mars Ultor and Palatine Apollo
The denarius of 12 BC celebrating Augustus as pontifex maximus and Propertius’ Elegies 4.6 both contribute to Augustus’ image as a religious leader.
Augustus Secures Peace Throughout the Empire
War was a way of life to the Romans of the Republic – wealthy men were expected to serve as officers in the army and a high percentage of ordinary citizens were conscripted into service. But by the time Augustus had secured power, many were tired of civil war – decades of war and proscriptions had decimated the populations and people were ready to enjoy a period of prolonged peace. Augustus recognised this and crafted his public image accordingly, ensuring themes of peace pervaded the literature and art of the time.
The peace of Augustus was known as the ‘Pax Augusta’, which safeguarded Augustus as anybody threatening to challenge his power could be seen as threatening peace itself. Augustus made himself seem integral to the peace and safety of Rome – without him, Rome could regress back into its war-torn past.
The biggest problem Augustus faced with this was that Rome was not, in fact, at peace! The vast majority of Roman territory had been and would continue to be taken by force and people at the edges of the empire would often rise up against occupying Roman forces. In addition to reactionary battles, Augustus continued to plan campaigns to expand the empire – with every new province, Rome gained plundered booty and taxes. So although Augustus’ defeat of Antony marked the end of civil wars, it did not mark the end of all wars. The gates of the Temple of Janus Quirinus did not remain closed for long.
Augustus ensured that poets wrote about his wars at the edges of the empire and characterised them as necessary to ensure peace or to redress past injustices. Perhaps the most notable conflict that received a great deal of attention form Augustan poets was the Parthian campaign in 22-19 BC. The Parthian Empire was responsible for one of Rome’s most humiliating defeats – in 53 BC Crassus had led a campaign there that saw himself alongside 40,000 Roman soldiers killed and his legionary standards were captured by the Parthians. The loss of these standards had a huge impact on the morale of ordinary Romans. Augustus sent his stepson Tiberius to negotiate the return of the standards, securing them and establishing friendly relations with the Parthians. Augustus presented the return of the standards as proof that Parthia had submitted to Roman control, but in actual fact they did no such thing. It was also a purely diplomatic event – no fighting ensued, but Augustus implies otherwise in the Res Gestae.
Propertius’ Elegies 3.4 emphasises the glory and benefits of Augustus’ foreign campaigning. For the Parthian victory, Augustus was also awarded a triumphal arch in the Forum which no longer survives. Another monument of the campaign is the Prima Porta statue. Propertius’ Elegies 3.12 stresses the negative impact of Augustus’ foreign campaigning.
Augustus Adjusts His Relationship with Caesar
In the early years of his political career, aligning himself with Caesar suited Augustus’ need to gain visibility and popularity. Caesar was not, however, an ideal figure – although he had been liked by many, he seized and maintained power in an unconstitutional way and many conservative senators considered him a tyrant.
Now in sole command, Augustus was ready to distance himself from Caesar in order to prevent being seen in the same vein. Yet as such a key part of Augustus’ public identity, he could not sever all ties to Caesar. Augustus’ solution was to shift the focus of his propaganda onto stresses links with Julius Caesar the god as opposed to Julius Caesar the man – as a god, he was beyond reproach, separated from his past and became a generic symbol of divinity and Rome. The denarius of 19/18 BC of Augustus alongside Caesar’s comet is a good example of this change, as is Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Augustus the Father of the State
In the last century of the Republic, Rome had seen a lapse in moral standards. Traditional ideals of modest living had given way to indulgence and luxury, leading to an increase in greed and political ambition. This therefore led to a political environment where politicians sacrificed the good of the state for their personal advancement.
There had been an increase in adultery in the upper classes – this was problematic as the legitimacy of noble children could not be guaranteed, and chaste women were needed as they were importance in religious ceremonies. Many believe that Rome’s recent trouble was, at least partly, due to a lapse in moral standards and dwindling respect for the gods. Horace’s Odes 3.6 explores this.
To address this moral decline, Augustus needed to inspire his people to change their ways. He did this by encouraging the people of Rome to view him as a father figure, with the authority to dictate their behaviour.
He passed the Leges Juliae to regulate the behaviour of citizens, encouraging marriage and reproduction. They included exclusions for those who chose not to marry – they could not attend public games. They also introduced severe punishments for adultery. Traditionally, the head of the household (paterfamilias) would have been responsible for arranging marriages and handling adultery within the family. By assuming this role, Augustus was positioning himself as the paterfamilias of Rome. These laws were not popular among many.
The view of Augustus as the paterfamilias of Rome was also encouraged through his role in state religion – it was the responsibility of the paterfamilias to take part in festivals and duties on behalf of the family. Augustus was a member of almost every priestly college and held the role of pontifex maximus after 12 BC. This meant he took part in a huge amount of public rituals on behalf of the people of Rome. In 2 BC he was granted the title of Pater Patriae by the Senate, literally meaning ‘father of the fatherland/his country’.
By establishing himself as the head of Rome’s household, he hoped to change the behaviour of the people by setting a strong example of moral behaviour himself and within the imperial family. Suetonius’ Life of Augustus 59 details how he cared for his grandchildren and taught them proper behaviour. Various sources agree that Augustus had modest tastes – his home on the Palatine hill was not a spectacular palace nor did he appear in luxurious clothes. He hoped to discourage excessive luxury in his people by setting a modest example himself. Horace’s Odes 3.14 celebrates Augustus’ return from foreign campaigns and mentions Livia and Octavia as exemplary figures. Younger Seneca wrote of Livia’s mourning of Drusus, honouring his memory in true Roman fashion.
But in reality, the imperial family were not perfect role models. Augustus’ only daughter Julia the Elder was accused of adultery in 2 BC and was exiled from Rome under the laws of the Leges Juliae. Various of her lovers were exiled and some committed suicide. In 8 AD, Augustus’ granddaughter Julia the Younger was accused of having an affair with a senator and was also sent into exile. While these instances do not show the imperial family as role models, they mark Augustus’ integrity in following his own laws and morals even in what must have been emotional decisions. Suetonius 65 conveys devastation Augustus felt after the adultery of the Julias.
The Dawn of a New Golden Age
Augustus was also eager to influence not just how the Roman people viewed him, but how they viewed themselves. In convincing them that their lives were significantly better with him as their ruler, they would be less likely to revolt against him. He encouraged the idea that his reign was a new ‘Golden Age’, and the Roman people were therefore a golden race.
Greek mythology told of an idyllic golden age – the first race of men lived carefree lives and were loved by the gods. Hesiod states that the Golden Age presided when Cronus/Saturn reigned, and that it ended when Zeus/Jupiter deposed him. There was an implication in this that as Augustus was the bringer of the new age, if he was ever removed from power, the age would end. Hesiod’s myth is a story of decline, but Augustus provided a new vision that the ages of man was cyclical; a new golden age was to begin. He also claimed that the age had been prophecised in the Sibylline Books, making his claim seem ordained by the gods and not himself.
In 17 BC Augustus announced the start of the new age and marked the occasion with the ludi saeculares games. This was a three night and day festival in honour of the gods with many grand sacrifices and entertainment. All Romans were expected to attend – even those banned under the Leges Juliae for being unmarried. Horace composed a hymn especially for the occasion, Carmen Saeculare, which was sung by a chorus of Roman youths dressed in white at the Temple of Palatine Apollo and again on the Capitol.
Augustus and his ‘Sons’
Augustus soon turned his attention from the present to the future – his power was stable and it seemed unlikely anybody would overthrow him (thought there were 2 unsuccessful plots, one in 2 BC and the other in 8 AD). The most pressing issue is what would happen after he died; there was no precedent for what happened and the principate was not a hereditary position. He surely wanted to avoid the power vacuum that happened after Caesar’s death.
To encourage a smooth transition of power, Augustus began crafting his younger male relatives for power. He used formal adoption as a way of signalling his intention and carefully managed the images of his potential heirs. In 17 BC, he formally adopted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius. They were related to Augustus by blood and they were sons of Agrippa, making them ideal candidates. The elder of the two, Gaius, was presented to the public in 13 BC when he took part in the Troy game. Lucius was presented a couple of years later. They appeared on official coinage, such as the aureus of 2BC-4AD.
Unfortunately all of Augustus’ work in grooming Gaius and Lucius would be in vain – Lucius was taken ill in 2 AD in Armenia and died. In 4 AD Gaius was killed on campaign. After their deaths, Augustus needed to change his tactic. In 4 AD, Augustus adopted Agrippa Postumus and Livia’s son Tiberius. Agrippa Postumus was exiled in 6 AD, and Augustus seemed very reluctant to adopt Tiberius.
Tiberius had been positioned as more of a military general than a political figure. He had been on several campaigns at the edges of the empire with Drusus and had been particularly involved in the retrieval of the Parthian standards. Augustus commissioned poets to celebrate their exploits, e.g Horace Odes 4.4. Tiberius was a hugely successful general but despite this glory, he went into self-imposed exile in 6 BC for unknown reason – perhaps resentful of Augustus’ preference for Gaius and Lucius, or in protest over his arranged marriage to Julia the Elder. He was summoned back to Rome in 2 AD.
Augustus’ Building Programme
It is often said that Augustus found the city of Rome made of brick but left it clothed in marble. Prior to Augustus, Rome was significantly less developed, and Philip of Macedon is said to have mocked the humble appearance of the city when he visited in 182 BC. By the end of Augustus’ reign, he had changed the face of Rome by repairing dilapidated temples and by building a new series of religious and civic buildings, public amenities and monuments. These visible projects contributed to the idea of Augustus as benefactor and bringer of the Golden Age.
Agrippa was tasked with organising and funding the projects to improve the quality of urban life – as aedile he was responsible for repairing the city’s water supply, restoring aqueducts and commissioning new ones. He also donated many acres of his own land to public use for theatres, parkland, exercise grounds and baths. He was also responsible for a temple dedicated to all the gods: the Pantheon. The people would have understood that Agrippa’s projects were really Augustus’ projects.
One of the largest and most impressive of Augustus’ building projects was the Forum of Augustus. The Ara Pacis, though commissioned by the Senate, was also notable.
Augustus’ Image in the Empire
Augustus’ public image in Rome engaged directly with Roman culture and values. As the leader of a whole empire, he was well aware of his need to shift certain aspects of his image in order to meet expectations and desires of his provincial audiences. An excellent instance of this is the Kalabsha Gate in Egypt. The Meroe Head believed also to have been displayed in Egypt in close in style to the Prima Porta, a more similar image. Perhaps this was to cater to both Roman and Egyptian audiences, or maybe Augustus had little to do with how he was represented further afield. But the Meroe Head was found buried, perhaps implying the Egyptians were rebelling against Augustus.
Many imperial provinces had a tradition of worshiping their rulers like gods, especially the Hellenistic east. Augustus was not keen to encourage this as it could play poorly in Rome. Instead he encouraged the worship of the cult of Rome and Augustus, satisfying the desire for ruler worship without associating himself with kings. An example of this is the Temple of Rome and Augustus and Pula, modern day Croatia.
He also encouraged the cult of the Divine Julius in the provinces as well as the worship of his genius.
AUGUSTUS’ LEGACY
Augustus carefully managed his public image throughout his lifetime, and he wished for future generations to remember his reign in a particular way.
From as early as 28 BC, Augustus had been considering his legacy. He vowed the Mausoleum in 32 BC in response to Antony’s will, and it was complete in 23 BC. Augustus also composed an elogium for himself, the Res Gestae.
He died on 19th August 14 AD. His stepson Tiberius had been adopted in 4 AD as Augustus’ heir; upon Augustus’ death, the principate was conferred to him. He was the first to be formally recognised as emperor of Rome. Shortly after his death, Augustus was declared a god. Livia outlived him by several years and she too was deified after her death.
LATER REPRESENTATIONS
Augustus’ image influenced the way in which his successors chose to portray themselves – Tiberius and Nero both mirrored Augustus’ coin imagery.
One of the best-preserved later depictions of Augustus is the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias.
A clear change of Augustus’ image after his death is his divinity. During his reign he avoided depicting himself as a god despite encouraging his divine associations.
Suetonius’ Life of Augustus is a biographical account of Augustus’ life written in 121 AD under Hadrian, telling us a lot about how people viewed Augustus over a century after his death.
In the modern age, Augustus has been a dominant supporting character in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. He features in Graves’ novel I, Claudius.
MODERN SCHOLARSHIP
Beard – Res Gestae is a ‘rose-tinted’ and self-serving piece of work
Brunt and Moore – Res Gestae should be treated with caution; what is ‘omitted’ is just as telling as what is included
Eck – veteran colonies were intended to be ‘small images of Rome’ and helped spread the influence of Roman culture across the empire
Eck - prior to the Leges Juliae, never before in Roman history did laws and state programs affect individuals and communities so extensively
Everitt – Augustus was ‘devious, untrustworthy and bloodthirsty’
Everitt – Augustus ‘governed efficiently and justly’
Galinsky – the Prima Porta was a ‘deliberate synthesis of several traditions’
Galinsky – Augustan art was ‘complex, nuanced, and multireferenial’
Galinsky – implies general population was not concerned with the specifics of Augustus’ power but more practical things like peace and stability
Harris – the literacy rate of Rome was ‘10% at best’
Jones – Augustus ‘did not impose any censorship’ on authors and did not ‘press them to glorify’ himself or his regime
Klaridge – most of the figures on the Ara Pacis are ‘symbolic’, not specific people
Nicholls - façade of restoring the Republic but it was actually a revolution
Scullard – the ‘ultimate sanction’ of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised
Scullard – Augustus acted for ‘the best interests of his country’
Scullard – Augustus was ‘clearly not a man of genius’ as Caesar was, but ‘his talents matched the desperate needs of the day’
Scullard – writers could exude ‘great influence’ over public opinion
Sutherland – coinage had a ‘primarily economic purpose’
Wallace-Hadrill - ‘adept at faking tradition’
Wallace-Hadrill – propaganda war was a ‘battle for hearts and minds’
Wallace-Hadrill – the ‘fascination with Augustus still has to fade’
Wallace-Hadrill – Tacitus offered a ‘biting’ assessment of Augustus
Wardle - Suetonius' writing style is unreliable as it uses language implying regularity of habit about something that happened only once
Wilson – symbolism on coins would have been ‘easily decoded’ by most Romans
Zanker – Augustus used art to fulfil ‘moral and political objectives’
Zanker – Antony's ‘entire lifestyle’ was shaped by his role as Dionysus. Implies he took this association too far.
Zanker – Augustus' relationship with Apollo was ‘ideally suited’ to Augustus